TY  - BOOK
AU  - Lougheed,Lin
TI  - Writing for the IELTS
SN  - 9781438007656
AV  - PE1128 .L6575 2016
PY  - 2016///]
CY  - Hauppauge, New York
PB  - Barron's Educational Series, Inc.
KW  - International English Language Testing System
KW  - English language
KW  - Examinations
KW  - Study guides
KW  - Textbooks for foreign speakers
KW  - Rhetoric
KW  - Problems, exercises, etc
KW  - Universities and colleges
KW  - Entrance requirements
N1  - PREFACE, V; CHAPTER 1 PERSONALITY THEORY: FROM EVERYDAY OBSERVATIONS TO SYSTEMATIC THEORIES, 1; QUESTIONS TO BE ADDRESSED IN THIS CHAPTER, 3; FIVE GOALS FOR THE PERSONALITY THEORIST, 4; 1. Observation That Is Scientific, 4; 2. Theory That Is Systematic, 5; 3. Theory That Is Testable, 5; 4. Theory That Is Comprehensive, 5; 5. Applications: From Theory to Practice, 6; WHY STUDY PERSONALITY? 6; DEFINING PERSONALITY, 7; QUESTIONS ABOUT PERSONS: WHAT, HOW, AND WHY, 9; ANSWERING QUESTIONS ABOUT PERSONS SCIENTIFICALLY: UNDERSTANDING STRUCTURES, PROCESSES, DEVELOPMENT, AND THERAPEUTIC CHANGE, 9; Structure, 9; Units of Analysis, 10; Hierarchy, 12; Process, 12; Growth and Development, 13; Genetic Determinants , 14; Environmental Determinants , 16; Culture, 18; Social Class, 18; Family, 19; Peers, 19; Psychopathology and Behavior Change, 19; IMPORTANT ISSUES IN PERSONALITY THEORY, 20; Philosophical View of the Person, 20; Internal and External Determinants of Behavior, 21; Consistency across Situations and over Time, 21; The Unity of Experience and Action and the Concept of Self, 23; Varying States of Awareness and the Concept of the Unconscious, 24; The Influence of the Past, Present, and Future on Behavior, 24; Can We Have a Science of Personality? What Kind of a Science Can It Be? 25; EVALUATING PERSONALITY THEORIES, 26; THE PERSONALITY THEORIES: AN INTRODUCTION, 27; The Challenge of Constructing a Personality Theory, 27; The Personality Theories: A Preliminary Sketch, 28; On the Existence of Multiple Theories: Theories As Toolkits, 30; MAJOR CONCEPTS, 31; REVIEW, 32; CHAPTER 2 THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF PEOPLE, 33; QUESTIONS TO BE ADDRESSED IN THIS CHAPTER, 34; THE DATA OF PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY, 35; Lots of Data, 36; How Do Data from Different Sources Relate to One Another? 37; Fixed Versus Flexible Measures, 39; Personality and Brain Data, 40; Personality Theory and Assessment , 41; GOALS OF RESEARCH: RELIABILITY, VALIDITY, ETHICAL BEHAVIOR, 43; Reliability , 43; Validity, 43; The Ethics of Research and Public Policy, 45; THREE GENERAL STRATEGIES TO RESEARCH, 46; Case Studies, 46; Case Studies: An Example, 47; Correlational Studies, 49; Correlational Research: An Example, 50; Experiments, 52; Experimental Research: An Example, 54; Evaluating Alternative Research Approaches, 57; Case Studies and Clinical Research: Strengths and Limitations, 57; The Use of Verbal Reports, 58; Correlational Research and Questionnaires: Strengths and Limitations, 60; Laboratory, Experimental Research: Strengths and Limitations, 61; Summary of Strengths and Limitations, 63; PERSONALITY THEORY AND PERSONALITY RESEARCH, 64; PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT AND THE CASE OF JIM, 65; Autobiographical Sketch of Jim, 66; MAJOR CONCEPTS, 66; REVIEW, 67; CHAPTER 3 A PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORY: FREUD'S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY, 69; QUESTIONS TO BE ADDRESSED IN THIS CHAPTER, 70; SIGMUND FREUD (1856-1939): A VIEW OF THE THEORIST, 70; FREUD'S VIEW OF THE PERSON, 72; The Mind As an Energy System, 73; The Individual in Society, 76; FREUD'S VIEW OF THE SCIENCE OF PERSONALITY, 76; FREUD'S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY OF PERSONALITY, 77; Structure, 77; Levels of Consciousness and the Concept of the Unconscious, 78; Dreams, 79; The Motivated Unconscious, 80; Relevant Psychoanalytic Research, 80; Current Status of the Concept of the Unconscious, 83; The Psychoanalytic Unconscious and the Cognitive Unconscious, 85; Id, Ego, and Superego, 87; Process, 90; Life and Death Instincts, 90; The Dynamics of Functioning, 91; Anxiety, Mechanisms of Defense, and Contemporary Research on Defensive Processes, 92; Denial, 93; Projection, 94; Isolation, Reaction Formation, and Sublimation, 95; Repression, 96; Growth and Development, 99; The Development of the Instincts and Stages of Development, 99; Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development, 104; The Importance of Early Experience, 107; The Development of Thinking Processes, 109; MAJOR CONCEPTS, 111; REVIEW, 112; CHAPTER 4 FREUD'S PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY: APPLICATIONS, RELATED THEORETICAL CONCEPTIONS, AND CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH, 113; QUESTIONS TO BE ADDRESSED IN THIS CHAPTER, 114; PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSONALITY ASSESSMENT: PROJECTIVE TESTS, 115; The Logic of Projective Tests, 115; The Rorschach Inkblot Test, 116; The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), 119; Projective Tests: Do They Work? 120; PSYCHOPATHOLOGY, 122; Personality Types, 122; Conflict and Defense, 124; PSYCHOLOGICAL CHANGE, 125; Insights into the Unconscious: Free Association and Dream Interpretation, 126; The Therapeutic Process: Transference, 126; A Case Example: Little Hans, 128; THE CASE OF JIM, 132; Rorschach and Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) Data, 132; Comments on the Data, 134; RELATED THEORETICAL CONCEPTIONS AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS, 135; Two Early Challenges to Freud: Adler and Jung, 135; Alfred Adler (1870-1937), 135; Carl G. Jung (1875-1961), 137; The Cultural and Interpersonal Emphasis: Horney and Sullivan, 141; Reinterpreting Motivational Forces, 141; Karen Horney (1885-1952), 141; Harry Stack Sullivan (1892-1949), 143; Object Relations, Self Psychology, and Attachment Theory, 144; Object Relations Theory, 144; Self Psychology and Narcissism, 145; Attachment Theory, 147; Attachment Styles in Adulthood, 150; Attachment Types or Dimensions? 153; CRITICAL EVALUATION, 155; Scientific Observation: The Database, 156; Theory: Systematic? 156; Theory: Testable? 157; Theory: Comprehensive? 157; Applications , 158; Major Contributions and Summary, 158; MAJOR CONCEPTS, 160; REVIEW, 160; CHAPTER 5 A PHENOMENOLOGICAL THEORY: CARL ROGERS'S PERSON-CENTERED THEORY OF PERSONALITY, 163; QUESTIONS TO BE ADDRESSED IN THIS CHAPTER, 164; CARL R. ROGERS (1902-1987): A VIEW OF THE THEORIST, 165; ROGERS'S VIEW OF THE PERSON, 168; The Subjectivity of Experience, 168; Feelings of Authenticity, 169; The Positivity of Human Motivation, 169; A Phenomenological Perspective, 170; ROGERS'S VIEW OF THE SCIENCE OF PERSONALITY, 170; THE PERSONALITY THEORY OF CARL ROGERS, 171; Structure, 171; The Self, 171; Confirming Pages, 172; Measuring Self-Concept, 173; The Q-Sort Technique, 173; The Semantic Differential, 174; Process, 176; Self-Actualization, 177; Self-Consistency and Congruence, 178; States of Incongruence and Defensive Processes, 179; Research on Self-Consistency and Congruence, 179; The Need for Positive Regard, 182; Growth and Development, 184; Research on Parent-Child Relationships, 185; Social Relations, Self-Actualization, and Well-Being Later in Life, 188; MAJOR CONCEPTS, 189; REVIEW, 190; CHAPTER 6 ROGERS'S PHENOMENOLOGICAL THEORY: APPLICATIONS, RELATED THEORETICAL CONCEPTIONS, AND CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH, 191; QUESTIONS TO BE ADDRESSED IN THIS CHAPTER, 193; CLINICAL APPLICATIONS, 193; Psychopathology, 193; Self-Experience Discrepancy, 193; Psychological Change, 194; Therapeutic Conditions Necessary for Change, 195; Outcomes of Client-Centered Therapy, 198; Presence, 200; A CASE EXAMPLE: MRS. OAK, 201; THE CASE OF JIM, 203; Semantic Differential: Phenomenological Theory, 203; Comments on the Data, 204; RELATED THEORETICAL CONCEPTIONS, 205; The Human Potential Movement, 205; Abraham H.; Maslow (1908-1970), 206; The Positive Psychology Movement, 207; Classifying Human Strengths, 208; The Virtues of Positive Emotions, 209; Flow, 209; Existentialism , 210; The Existentialism of Sartre: Consciousness, Nothingness, Freedom, and Responsibility, 211; Contemporary Experimental Existentialism, 213; RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THEORY AND RESEARCH, 215; Discrepancies among Parts of the Self, 215; Fluctuations in Self-Esteem and Contingencies of Worth, 216; Authenticity and Internally Motivated Goals, 217; Cross-Cultural Research on the Self, 219; Cultural Differences in the Self and the Need for Positive Self-Regard, 220; CRITICAL EVALUATION, 223; Scientific Observation: The Database, 223; Theory: Systematic? 224; Theory: Testable? 224; Theory: Comprehensive? 225; Applications, 226; Major Contributions and Summary, 226; MAJOR CONCEPTS, 227; REVIEW, 228; CHAPTER 7 TRAIT THEORIES OF PERSONALITY: ALLPORT, EYSENCK, AND CATTELL, 229; QUESTIONS TO BE ADDRESSED IN THIS CHAPTER, 230; A VIEW OF THE TRAIT THEORISTS, 231; TRAIT THEORY'S VIEW OF THE PERSON, 232; The Trait Concept, 232; TRAIT THEORY'S VIEW OF THE SCIENCE OF PERSONALITY, 233; Scientific Functions Served by Trait Constructs, 233; Description, 233; Prediction, 234; Explanation, 234; TRAIT THEORIES OF PERSONALITY: BASIC PERSPECTIVES SHARED BY TRAIT THEORISTS, 235; THE TRAIT THEORY OF GORDON W. ALLPORT (1897-1967), 236; Traits: Personality Structure in Allport's Theory, 237; Functional Autonomy, 238; Idiographic Research, 239; Comment on Allport, 240; IDENTIFYING PRIMARY TRAIT DIMENSIONS: FACTOR ANALYSIS, 240; THE FACTOR-ANALYTIC TRAIT THEORY OF RAYMOND B. CATTELL (1905-1998), 243; Surface and Source Traits: Personality Structure in Cattell's Theory, 243; Sources of Evidence: L-Data, Q-Data, and OT-Data, 244; Stability and Variability in Behavior, 247; Comment on Cattell, 247; THE THREE-FACTOR THEORY OF HANS J. EYSENCK (1916-1997), 250; ''Superfactors": Personality Structure in Eysenck's Theory, 251; Measuring the Factors, 254; Biological Bases of Personality Traits, 255; Extraversion and Social Behavior, 257; Psychopathology and Behavior Change, 258; Comment on Eysenck, 258; MAJOR CONCEPTS, 259; REVIEW, 260; CHAPTER 8 TRAIT THEORY: THE FIVE-FACTOR MODEL; APPLICATIONS AND EVALUATION OF TRAIT APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY, 261; QUESTIONS TO BE ADDRESSED IN THIS CHAPTER, 262; THE FIVE-FACTOR MODEL OF PERSONALITY: RESEARCH EVIDENCE, 263; Analysis of Trait Terms in Natural Language and in Questionnaires, 263; The Fundamental Lexical Hypothesis, 267; Cross-Cultural Research: Are the Big Five Dimensions Universal? 268; The Big Five in Personality Questionnaires, 271; The NEO-PI-R and Its Hierarchical Structure: Facets, 271; Integration of Eysenck's and Cattell's Factors within the Big Five, 273; Self-Ratings and Observer Ratings, 274; PROPOSED THEORETICAL MODEL FOR THE BIG FIVE, 275; GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT, 279; Age Differences Throughout Adulthood, 279; Initial Findings from Childhood and Adolescence, 282; Stability and Change in Personality, 282; MAYBE WE MISSED ONE? THE SIX-FACTOR MODEL, 283; APPLICATIONS OF THE BIG FIVE MODEL, 285; THE CASE OF JIM, 288; Factor-Analytic Trait-Based Assessment, 288; Personality Stability: Jim 5 and 20 Years Later, 289; Self-Ratings and Ratings by Wife on the NEO-PI, 291; THE PERSON-SITUATION CONTROVERSY, 292; CRITICAL EVALUATION, 295; Scientific Observation: The Database, 296; Theory: Systematic? 296; Theory: Testable? 297; Theory: Comprehensive? 297; Applications, 298; Major Contributions and Summary, 299; MAJOR CONCEPTS, 300; REVIEW, 300; CHAPTER 9 BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF PERSONALITY, 301; QUESTIONS TO BE ADDRESSED IN THIS CHAPTER, 302; TEMPERAMENT, 303; Constitution and Temperament: Early Views, 304; Constitution and Temperament: Longitudinal Studies, 305; Biology, Temperament and Personality Development: Contemporary Research, 306; Inhibited and Uninhibited Children: Research of Kagan and Colleagues , 306; Interpreting Data on Biology and Personality , 310; Effortful Control and the Development of Conscience, 311; EVOLUTION, EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY, AND PERSONALITY, 314; Evolutionary Psychology, 315; Social Exchange and the Detection of Cheating, 317; Sex Differences: Evolutionary Origins? , 318; Male-Female Mate Preferences , 319; Causes of Jealousy , 320; Evolutionary Origins of Sex Differences: How Strong Are the Data?, 321; GENES AND PERSONALITY, 323; Behavioral Genetics, 324; Selective Breeding Studies, 324; Twin Studies , 324; Adoption Studies , 326; Heritability Coefficient , 327; Heritability of Personality: Findings, 328; Some Caveats, 329; Molecular Genetic Paradigms, 330; Environments and Gene-Environment Interactions, 332; Shared and Nonshared Environment , 332; Understanding Nonshared Environment Effects, 334; Three Kinds of Nature-Nurture Interactions, 335; MOOD, EMOTION, AND THE BRAIN, 336; Left and Right Hemispheric Dominance, 336; Neurotransmitters and Temperament: Dopamine and Serotonin, 338; Three Dimensions of Temperament: PE, NE, and DvC, 339; PLASTICITY: BIOLOGY AS BOTH CAUSE AND EFFECT, 341; From Experience to Biology, 341; Socioeconomic Status of Communities and Serotonin, 343; NEUROSCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS OF "HIGHER-LEVEL" PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS, 344; Brain and Self, 347; Brain and Moral Judgment, 347; MAJOR CONCEPTS, 349; REVIEW, 350; CHAPTER 10 BEHAVIORISM AND THE LEARNING APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY, 351; QUESTIONS TO BE ADDRESSED IN THIS CHAPTER, 352; BEHAVIORISM'S VIEW OF THE PERSON, 353; BEHAVIORISM'S VIEW OF THE SCIENCE OF PERSONALITY, 354; Environmental Determinism and Its Implications for the Concept of Personality, 354; Experimentation, Observable Variables, and Simple Systems, 356; WATSON, PAVLOV, AND CLASSICAL CONDITIONING, 358; Watson's Behaviorism, 358; Pavlov's Theory of Classical Conditioning, 360; Principles of Classical Conditioning, 360; Psychopathology and Change, 363; Conditioned Emotional Reactions, 364; The ''Unconditioning" of Fear of a Rabbit, 365; Systematic Desensitization, 366; A Reinterpretation of the Case of Little Hans, 368; Recent Developments, 369; SKINNER'S THEORY OF OPERANT CONDITIONING, 371; A View of the Theorist, 371; Skinner's Theory of Personality, 374; Structure, 374; Process: Operant Conditioning, 375; Growth and Development, 377; Psychopathology, 378; Behavioral Assessment, 379; Behavior Change, 381; Free Will? 382; CRITICAL EVALUATION, 383; Scientific Observation: The Database, 384; Theory: Systematic? 384; Theory: Testable? 385; Theory: Comprehensive? 385; Applications, 386; Major Contributions and Summary, 386; MAJOR CONCEPTS, 387; REVIEW, 388; CHAPTER 11 A COGNITIVE THEORY: GEORGE A. KELLY'S PERSONAL CONSTRUCT THEORY OF PERSONALITY, 389; QUESTIONS TO BE ADDRESSED IN THIS CHAPTER, 390; GEORGE A. KELLY (1905-1966): A VIEW OF THE THEORIST, 392; KELLY'S VIEW OF THE SCIENCE OF PERSONALITY, 393; KELLY'S VIEW OF THE PERSON, 396; THE PERSONALITY THEORY OF GEORGE A.; KELLY, 397; Structure, 397; Constructs and Their Interpersonal Consequences, 398; Types of Constructs and the Construct System, 399; Assessment: The Role Construct Repertory (Rep) Test, 401; Unique Information Revealed by Personal Construct Testing, 403; Cognitive Complexity/Simplicity, 403; Process, 407; Anticipating Events, 407; Anxiety, Fear, and Threat, 410; Growth and Development, 413; CLINICAL APPLICATIONS, 414; Psychopathology, 414; Change and Fixed-Role Therapy, 415; THE CASE OF JIM, 417; Rep Test: Personal Construct Theory, 417; Comments on the Data, 419; RELATED POINTS OF VIEW AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS, 419; CRITICAL EVALUATION, 420; Scientific Observation: The Database, 420; Theory: Systematic? 421; Theory: Testable? 421; Theory: Comprehensive? 422; Applications, 423; Major Contributions and Summary, 423; MAJOR CONCEPTS, 424; REVIEW, 425; CHAPTER 12 SOCIAL-COGNITIVE THEORY: BANDURA AND MISCHEL, 427; QUESTIONS TO BE ADDRESSED IN THIS CHAPTER, 428; RELATING SOCIAL-COGNITIVE THEORY TO THE PREVIOUS THEORIES, 428; A VIEW OF THE THEORISTS, 429; Albert Bandura (1925-), 429; Walter Mischel (1930-), 430; SOCIAL-COGNITIVE THEORY'S VIEW OF THE PERSON, 432; SOCIAL-COGNITIVE THEORY'S VIEW OF THE SCIENCE OF PERSONALITY, 433; SOCIAL-COGNITIVE THEORY OF PERSONALITY: STRUCTURE, 433; Competencies and Skills, 433; Beliefs and Expectancies, 434; The Self and Self-Efficacy Beliefs, 436; Self-Efficacy and Performance, 438; Goals, 441; Evaluative Standards, 442; The Nature of Social-Cognitive Personality Structures, 444; SOCIAL-COGNITIVE THEORY OF PERSONALITY: PROCESS, 445; Reciprocal Determinism, 445; Personality As a Cognitive-Affective Processing System (CAPS), 446; SOCIAL-COGNITIVE THEORY OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT, 450; Observational Learning (Modeling), 450; Acquisition versus Performance, 452; Vicarious Conditioning, 453; Self-Regulation and Motivation, 455; Self-Efficacy, Goals, and Self-Evaluative Reactions, 456; Self-Control and Delay of Gratifi cation, 458; Learning Delay of Gratification Skills, 458; Mischel's Delay of Gratification Paradigm, 460; Summary of the Social-Cognitive View of Growth and Development, 462; MAJOR CONCEPTS, 464; REVIEW, 464; CHAPTER 13 SOCIAL-COGNITIVE THEORY: APPLICATIONS, RELATED THEORETICAL CONCEPTIONS, AND CONTEMPORARY RESEARCH, 467; QUESTIONS TO BE ADDRESSED IN THIS CHAPTER, 468; COGNITIVE COMPONENTS OF PERSONALITY: BELIEFS, GOALS, AND EVALUATIVE STANDARDS, 469; Beliefs about the Self and Self-Schemas, 469; Self-Schemas and Reaction-Time Methods, 471; Self-Based Motives and Motivated Information Processing, 474; Learning Versus Performance Goals, 476; Causes of Learning Versus Performance Goals: Implicit Theories, 478; Standards of Evaluation, 480; Self-Standards, Self-Discrepancies, Emotion, and Motivation, 481; A ''General Principles" Approach to Personality, 484; Psychopathology and Change: Modeling, Self-Conceptions, and Perceived Self-Efficacy, 486; Self-Efficacy, Anxiety, and Depression, 487; Self-Efficacy and Health, 488; Therapeutic Change: Modeling and Guided Mastery, 489; STRESS AND COPING, 494; Ellis's Rational-Emotive Therapy, 496; Beck's Cognitive Therapy for Depression, 498; The Cognitive Triad of Depression, 498; Research on Faulty Cognitions, 498; Cognitive Therapy, 499; THE CASE OF JIM, 500; CRITICAL EVALUATION, 502; Scientific Observation: The Database, 502; Theory: Systematic? 503; Theory: Testable? 503; Theory: Comprehensive? 503; Applications, 504; Major Contributions and Summary, 505; MAJOR CONCEPTS, 505; REVIEW, 506; CHAPTER 14 PERSONALITY IN CONTEXT: INTERPERSONAL RELATIONS, CULTURE, AND DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE COURSE OF LIFE, 507; QUESTIONS TO BE ADDRESSED IN THIS CHAPTER, 509; INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS, 510; Rejection Sensitivity, 510; ''Hot" and ''Cool" Focus , 513; Transference in Interpersonal Relationships, 514; MEETING ACADEMIC AND SOCIAL CHALLENGES: OPTIMISTIC STRATEGIES AND DEFENSIVE PESSIMISM, 516; PERSONALITY CONSISTENCY IN CONTEXT, 517; PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN SOCIOECONOMIC CONTEXT, 520; Causes and Effects of Personality Attributes, 522; PERSONALITY FUNCTIONING ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN, 523; Psychological Resilience in the Later Years, 523; Emotional Life in Older Adulthood: Socioemotional Selectivity, 524; PERSONS IN CULTURES, 525; Two Strategies for Thinking about Personality and Culture, 525; Strategy #1: Personality . . . and Culture? 525; Strategy #2: Culture and Personality, 527; Personality and Self As Socially Constructed within Culture, 528; Independent and Interdependent Views of Self, 529; PUTTING PERSONALITY IN CONTEXT INTO PRACTICE, 531; Assessing Personality in Context: A Case Study, 531; Personality Processes in Context: Fostering Social Change, 536; SUMMARY, 538; MAJOR CONCEPTS, 538; REVIEW, 539; CHAPTER 15 ASSESSING PERSONALITY THEORY AND RESEARCH, 541; QUESTIONS TO BE ADDRESSED IN THIS CHAPTER, 542; ON STRUCTURES, PROCESSES, DEVELOPMENT, AND THERAPEUTIC CHANGE, 542; Personality Structure, 542; Process, 543; Growth and Development, 545; Psychopathology and Change, 545; THE CASE OF JIM, 548; HOW DID THEY DO? A CRITICAL EVALUATION OF PERSONALITY, 549; Theories and Research, 549; Scientific Observation: The Database, 549; Theory: Systematic? 551; Theory: Testable? 552; Theory: Comprehensive? 552; Applications, 553; A FINAL SUMMING UP: THEORIES AS TOOLKITS, 554; REVIEW, 555; GLOSSARY, 557; REFERENCES, 567; NAME INDEX, 603; SUBJECT INDEX, 609
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